Abstract
Alan Jasanoff is an award winning
neuroscientist and bioengineer at MIT. He obtained a Bachelor’s Degree in
Biochemical Sciences from Harvard College. He earned a Masters in Chemistry at
the University of Cambridge, UK, and completed his PhD studies in Biophysics at
Harvard University. Jasanoff joined the faculty of the Department of Biological
Engineering at MIT in 2004. The Jasanoff laboratory is focused on developing
new functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) methods to study the neural
mechanisms of behavior. The research in the Jasanoff lab is at the interface
between neuroscience and biology. In his book The Biological Mind: How Brain, Body and Environment Collaborate To
Make Us Who We Are Jasanoff provides strong arguments that we are more than
our brains. When asking what makes you who you are, Jasanoff answers by pointing
out you are not only your brain, but you are the product of interactions among
the brain, the body outside of the brain and the environment. The brain is
important but so is the rest of the body and the environment in determining who
you are. The current article provides a review of The
Biological Mind: How Brain, Body and Environment Collaborate To Make Us Who We.
INTRODUCTION
Jasanoff introduces the term cerebral mystique. The
cerebral mystique reflects a belief that the brain is much more important than
anything else in determining who we are. Believing that the brain is all that
matters, in determining who we are, is derived from a false perception of the
organ and its significance as being independent from a system that includes the
body outside of the brain and the environment. The mystique promotes age-old
conceptions about distinctions between mind and body, free will and the nature
of the individuality of humans. The cerebral mystique can appear in multiple
forms including beliefs in superstitious entities, exaggerated sophistication
of brains as promoted in fiction and media, beliefs regarding cognitive
functions that emphasize inorganic qualities or identify mental processes as
isolated functions occurring only in specific neural structures. These mystical
like conceptions regarding the brain are ubiquitous in laypeople and
scientists.
A positive outcome of the cerebral mystique is that glorifying
the brain can help influence public interest in neurobiological research, which
may lead to valuable findings that can benefit society. However,
overemphasizing the importance of the brain may conceal a basic finding of
neuroscience: human minds are biologically based, stemming from physiological
processes and are subject to the principles that govern nature. By exalting the
brain we run the risk of creating a sharp distinction between the brain and the
body and the brain and the environment. This leads to losing sight of the
interactive reality of our world.
In the first part of the book the cerebral mystique,
and its various forms, are presented. Issues related to the cerebral mystique
promote a brain-body distinction that is similar to the well known mind-body
dualism found in Western philosophy and religion that has existed for hundreds
of years. By viewing the brain and body as distinct we may think of people as more independent
than they truly are, and we minimize our connections to others and minimize how
the environment influences who we are. To reiterate, this separation between
brain and body acts as a stand-in for mind-body dualism; the belief that the
mind and body are comprised of completely separate substances.
In part 2, the author
explains why a biologically realistic view of brains and minds is important,
and how this view could improve the world. Three areas (psychology, medicine
and technology) that are heavily influenced by the cerebral mystique are
discussed. In psychology, the mystique promotes a view that the brain is the
sole cause of thoughts and behaviors. This leads to an exaggerated view of the
role of individuality and downplays the influence of context in a range of
phenomena. In medicine the negative consequence of the cerebral mystique is to
perpetuate the stigma associated with psychiatric illnesses. Society tends to
think of brain disorders as broken brains. Broken brains are often conceived as
being untreatable. Viewing mental disorders as synonymous with brain disorders
leads to a greater reliance on medications and less use of cognitive and
behavioral interventions. Mental illness conceptualized as a brain disorder
ignores the issue the mental pathologies are frequently culturally relative and
subjectively defined. In technological areas, the cerebral mystique revolves
around science fiction and ideas regarding breaking into the brain: “hacking
the brain.” Technological advances have historically involved high levels of
injury risk and benefited mostly debilitated patients. Currently, the most successful innovations
used to improve elements of cognition are external sources. In Jasanoff’s view
writing is probably the greatest cognitive aid ever invented.
The
Cerebral Mystique
The most popular analogy for the mind is the
computer. Many scientists and philosophers
accept the analogy, whether it be implicitly or explicitly, between
computers and minds. Popular science magazines are full of brain-computer
analogies, that compare brains with computers in terms of information
processing , speed of computations and efficiency. Brain and computer analogies
have been proposed since the beginning of the digital age. Computers and brains
are noted for their electrical signaling. Both use electrical signaling, but
the brain also uses chemicals. Electrical signaling in a computer is much
different than the sort of electrical based, multi-factorial activity happening
in the brain. Only considering the roles of neurons and electrical activity in
neurons leads to an incomplete view of brain processes. Approximately half of
the brain’s cells are neurons. The brain also contains other cells: glia and
endothelia. In addition, the brain is rich in fluids and chemicals that participate
in brain processes. Reducing cognitive processing strictly to the neuron’s
electrical signaling misrepresents brain signaling. Accepting the notion that
brains function according to exceptional principles, that are not displayed in
other biological entities, is a result of the cerebral mystique.
The brain is complex; an appreciation of the
complexity can spark further interest and research in brain science, but it can
also lead to less interest in the biology of our bodies outside of the brain.
Exaggerated views of its complexity can lead to abandoning a biologically based
view of the mind. The brain is a multi-faceted, multi-purpose structure that doesn’t
operate detached from the body. In describing brains in accordance with their
exceptional complexity it creates a brain-body distinction as in other forms of
the cerebral mystique.
Thousand of neuroimaging
studies are published each year. An imaging technique that has almost become
synonymous with discussions on neuroscience is the functional MRI (magnetic
resonance imaging). It is the subject of
popular science and sometimes promoted as revolutionary in contributing to an
understanding of the human brain. To perform an fMRI a person lays in an
imaging machine while a series of brain scans are occurring. The image series
is analyzed for time varying changes that are correlated with whatever the
person was experiencing at that time. These changes indicate how different
areas of the brain are involved when engaging in specific tasks. Brain imaging
appears fascinating for lay people and
some scientists, as it provides a physical basis for cognitive and emotional
processes. Jasanoff argues that we must consider more than brain imaging for a
deeper understanding of the brain’s role in human nature. Brain imaging is
subject to contradictory interpretations, doesn’t allow us to read the mind and
its persuasive value in many contexts is unwarranted. It might seem surprising
but some mind-body dualists welcome functional brain imaging studies as a way
for examining the disembodied mind. The Dalai Lama has worked with researchers
on topics relating to the brain and meditation.
Neuroscientists use brain imaging in this context to examine how brain
activity underpins meditation and the mind. The Dalai Lama has expressed
interest in neuroscience as he wants to learn something more about how the
immaterial mind influences the brain. To the Dalai Lama and other people holding similar views brain imaging
doesn’t provide evidence of a biological mind. Pictures derived from fMRIs provide
valuable information regarding brain activity, but they have limitations.
Functional brain images are highly processed, statistical representations of
data that are at times “as distant from underlying biological processes as bologna
is from a pig” (Jasanoff, 2018, p.81). Understanding
how mental processes work at a deep level requires multiple levels of analysis;
it is important to look beyond neuroimaging techniques.
Looking at brains through the lens of popular
neuroscience brains can become exceptionally complex, mystical machines, rather
than biological organs consisting of flesh and blood. The rest of the body
seems to be dispensable when compared to the brain. Personification of the
brain is reflected in statements such as “my brain is exhausted” or “my brain
doesn’t work that way.” Mental states are influenced by bodily cues in addition
to those occurring in the brain. The brain is required for an awareness of
these ailments, but the ailments influence mental states are often indirect. As
examples of indirect routes consider malaria and bone disorders. The parasite
that causes malaria has an impact on blood vessels and influences consciousness
by disrupting blood flow and oxygen carrying capacity. Bone disorders influence
the mind by causing inflammation and pain in areas outside of the brain.
Various mental dysfunctions can be caused by bodily problems including those of
the lungs, heart or endocrine systems. When malfunctions occur in the body
outside of the brain the mind can be negatively influenced. A growing body of
research supports embodied cognition, which shows that how we move through the
world and the particular use of our bodily structures has an impact on our mental
systems.
All thoughts and
actions are consequences that are influenced by a system including environmental
and bodily (including the brain) interactions. Sensory organs are continuously
sending signals to the brain. Our senses are active at varying levels, even when
sleeping. When examining sensory biology it becomes evident that our brains are
heavily influenced by external stimuli, and this occurs even when we are unaware
(unconsciously) it is happening. A surprising phenomenon first identified in
the early 21st century shows some areas of the brain are deactivated by many
stimuli. These regions of the brain have been termed the brain’s default mode
network and involve a fair portion of the cerebral cortex and areas outside of
sensory or motor processing areas.
The
Importance of Being Biological
A brain based model
isn’t beneficial in identifying and treating factors associated with addiction.
Peer pressure, family structure and socioeconomic status are well-known risk
factors for addiction. Explaining addiction as a brain disease can have
negative consequences such as diverting attention away from behavioral
therapies that may benefit addicts. Another area that often places too much
emphasis on a brain based model is the study of creativity. Media often talk
about the creative brain or present colorful brain illustrations showing
creative parts of the brain. Most brain scientists agree that brain biology is
important regarding cognitive capacities; however, it is also acknowledged that
culture, economic status and education are factors nvolved with creative acts. Research involving the
study of creativity in molecular biology labs show that creative ideas are most
likely to come from group discussions involving diverse inputs, rather than from
single brains working in isolation.
Mental illness is a worldwide problem, with
depression being the leading cause of disability. Ninety percent of US suicides
are associated to mental disorders. Some have argued that equating mental illness
with brain disease will help in treating these ailments and can reduce stigma
associated with psychological problems. Jasanoff disagrees and presents three general
points challenging the brain disease model of mental illness. First, the brain
disease model introduces a new stigma that works against those with mental
health problems: the stigma of a broken brain. Second, by focusing on the brain
potentially effective therapies, such as cognitive and behavioral therapies are
not considered. Third, too much emphasis on problems with individual brains
overemphasizes neural causes of mental illness while understating the role of
environmental and cultural factors. Equating mental health illness with brain disease doesn’t seem to prevent the
stigmatization of those with mental health issues. An international analysis
over a 20 year period found no improvement in social acceptance of people with
mental illness, despite the public’s exposure to neurobiological explanations
of mental illness. Evidence indicates internal and external factors influence
mental health. The brain is involved with behaviors of all sorts, at some
level, but whether a brain abnormality is an underpinning cause or second order
effect is hard to determine.
Neurotechnology has led to the concept of hacking
the brain. Most people think of hacking the brain as it relates to the
brain-as- computer analogy; it involves breaking into and manipulating the
brain. Fascination with neurotechnology is based on ideas that hacking the
brain will free it from the body’s constraints. However, it also reflects
thinking derived from the cerebral mystique and carries with it a few problems.
The first problem, is the thought that the brain and body are distinct from
each other. The second problem, is the sense that the brain is stronger or has
less limitations than the body outside of the brain. In fact, the brain and
body structures other than the brain have similar weaknesses, such as limited
endurance and capacity, as well as vulnerability to decay, infection and injury.
The cerebral mystique limits thinking about neurotechnologies similar to ways
in which it restricts thinking in regards to mental illness and the
individual’s role in society.
The final chapter of
the book is written in a different style than the previous chapters. The author
provides a fictional tale of what it would be like to have your brain preserved
in a vat. A vat is a large tank or tube generally used to hold liquid. Would
you still have the same experiences if your brain were detached from your body,
preserved and functioned by brain-computer- interface? Jasanoff says, no. He
points out that a lot of what makes us who we are is due to environmental
factors, somatic signals, sensory cues, social interactions and so on. The key message perpetuated throughout the book
is “you are not only your brain.” Recognizing you are more than your brain and
understanding how the brain is interactive with the body and its surroundings can help us appreciate our place as
biological beings in a universe consisting of complex interrelationships.
CONCLUSION
I think a different subtitle for the book should
have been chosen; the subtitle How Brain,
Body, And Environment Collaborate To Make Us Who We Are implies separation
of brain and body. Jasanoff is promoting the opposite: brain and body are
inseparable. The subtitle would be a better representative of the contents of
the book if it were How Brain, Body
Outside of the Brain, And Environment Collaborate To Make Us Who We Are. Other
titles would work, just so they reflect that the brain isn’t distinct from the
body. I would have liked to have read a more on the motor system and how
sensory feedback neurons influence movement , and the mechanisms involved with
exercise and its impact on brain structures and processes. A little more
coverage of embodied cognition would also have added to the value of the book.
Those few critiques by no means take away from the value of this work.
The book is choked full of useful references and
provides updates regarding the latest philosophical views and scientific
studies regarding the mind. The book places emphasis on a need for different levels of analysis in an
attempt to understand the mind. This book would be a good addition to anyone’s
library that has interest in the brain sciences and philosophical discussions
related to neuroscience, psychology or related fields.
Title: The
Biological Mind: How Brain, Body, and Environment Collaborate To Make Us Who We
Are / Alan Jasanoff. New York, NY: Basic Books, 2018.
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